1. Executive Summary

In this comprehensive report, Syrians for Truth and Justice (STJ) examines the systematic and widespread violations of housing, land, and property (HLP) rights committed in the predominantly Kurdish region of Afrin by factions of the Syrian National Army (SNA) since Operation Olive Branch in 2018. The report draws on 39 detailed testimonies that document cases involving the seizure and destruction of at least 53 homes, as well as agricultural lands, equipment, and other assets. These cases represent only a fraction of the broader pattern of violations that have persisted in the region since its capture.

The violations documented in this report were committed by members, leaders, civilians, and families affiliated with 19 factions of the SNA, including the Sultan Suleiman Shah Division (also known as al-Amshat), the Sultan Murad Division, the al-Hamza/al-Hamzat Division, the Tajammu Ahrar al-Sharqiya/Gathering of Free Men of the East (commonly known as Ahrar al-Sharqiya), and the Harakat Ahrar al-Sham al-Islamiyya/Islamic Movement of the Free Men of the Levant (commonly known as Ahrar al-Sham) factions.

The violations specifically targeted the properties of displaced Kurdish residents, estimated to number in the tens of thousands, who were forcibly displaced during or after the military operation as a result of widespread human rights abuses. Documented patterns of violations include the looting of property, in some cases valued at thousands of dollars; the seizure of homes and their subsequent conversion for military or residential use, with certain factions turning them into military headquarters while others housed their members’ families or displaced civilians from other regions with whom they had affiliations. Further violations involved the exploitation of confiscated shops and the destruction and use of agricultural land without the owners’ consent, compensation, or participation in any resulting profits.

Many property owners faced arbitrary arrest and detention, and in some cases, torture, either to force them to leave the area and give up their property or to intimidate them into abandoning their claims over seized assets. In one documented incident, a faction threatened a property owner with arrest after he filed a complaint with the relevant authorities, an example that highlights the ineffectiveness of existing grievance mechanisms and the failure of local law enforcement to assert authority or hold armed factions accountable.

This report comes seven months after the fall of the Assad regime, on 8 December 2024, to provide a detailed account of the worsening state of property rights in Afrin. It emphasizes the ongoing presence of SNA factions in many villages across the region, despite the official announcement of their dissolution and integration into the Ministry of Defense of the new Syrian government. The government now holds primary responsibility for ensuring the voluntary, safe, and dignified return of displaced individuals, as well as for establishing effective mechanisms to restore their property rights and rebuild their lives. The Turkish government also shares responsibility, as it continues to support and oversee the activities of the SNA factions in the region.

It should be noted that, despite later changes in the affiliations of the involved factions, the term SNA will be used throughout this report to refer to the political and military alignments of those factions during the period when the documented violations took place.

2. Legal opinion and Recommendations

2.1. From the perspective of Syrian legislation

The violations documented in this report, including the unlawful seizure of real estate, homes, shops, and agricultural lands in the Afrin region; the conversion of some properties into military headquarters; their exploitation or rental without the owners’ consent; the uprooting of olive trees; the destruction of property; and the arbitrary arrest, torture, degrading treatment, and extortion of owners to force them to relocate or relinquish their property, constitute flagrant breaches of several provisions of the 2025 Constitutional Declaration,[1] as well as of Syrian legislation currently in force pursuant to that Declaration.

Article 16.1 of the Constitutional Declaration affirms that “The right to private property is protected, and it may not be expropriated except for the public benefit and in return for fair compensation.” Its preamble further underscores the principles of the rule of law, victim redress, and the establishment of a state founded on citizenship, freedom, and dignity. Accordingly, any form of forced or unlawful seizure of private property, whether through its conversion into military headquarters, its exploitation without authorization, or its sale and purchase under coercion, constitutes a clear violation of this constitutional provision and cannot be justified under any security, political, or military pretext.

Furthermore, when armed groups or their affiliates occupy homes, shops, and agricultural lands, without the owner’s consent or any legal justification, and cause the loss of revenue, crops, damage to olive presses, uprooting of trees, and land bulldozing, it directly infringes on property rights. These actions breach the owner’s legal rights to use and benefit from their property, as protected under the Syrian Civil Code. Article 768 states that “the owner of a thing alone, within the limits of the law, has the right to use, exploit, and dispose of it.” Article 770 confirms that “the owner has the right to all its fruits, products, and appurtenances unless there is a provision or agreement to the contrary.” Additionally, Article 771 declares that “no one may be deprived of their property except in the cases and manner prescribed by law, and this shall be in return for fair compensation.”[2]

The actions detailed in this report violate various provisions of the Syrian Penal Code No. 148 of 1949.[3] Unlawfully seizing homes, agricultural lands, or commercial properties without the owners’ consent, whether for use as military headquarters, investment purposes, or housing, constitutes the crime of property usurpation under Article 723, punishable by imprisonment and a fine. Stealing household contents, agricultural equipment, or olive press production lines by members of military factions or their affiliates, especially during or after military operations, qualifies as theft during disturbances under Article 627. Threatening owners with arrest, murder, or harm to their families to discourage them from reclaiming their rights is considered criminal threats, punishable by imprisonment under Articles 559 et seq., with harsher penalties if committed by an armed group or involving weapons. Likewise, occupying another person’s property and refusing to leave despite formal demands violates the sanctity of the home and constitutes trespassing, as outlined in Article 557 of the Penal Code.

The arbitrary arrest, torture, and degrading treatment of property owners, as reported by victims, constitute the crimes of unlawful detention and torture under Articles 555–556 of the Syrian Penal Code and under Anti-Torture Law No. 16 of 2022. These laws remain in force under the 2025 Constitutional Declaration, which, in Article 18, obliges the State to protect human dignity and the sanctity of the body, and shall prohibit enforced disappearance and physical and moral torture. It also affirms that crimes of torture are not subject to statutes of limitation.

Numerous testimonies documented in this report indicate that perpetrators justify their actions with statements such as “war spoils” or “we liberated Afrin; you no longer have a place here.” These justifications have no basis in Syrian law and constitute an explicit acknowledgment of legal violations, effectively replacing state authority with de facto control and undermining the principles of legality and the rule of law. Despite the existence of “Grievance Redress Committee” and local authorities of the transitional government, victim testimonies indicate that these bodies are mostly ineffective because they lack genuine jurisdiction over the factions or fail to intervene. The resulting absence of legal remedies further deepens violations and prevents victims from accessing justice, directly contradicting the right to litigation guaranteed under Article 17 of the Constitutional Declaration.

2.2. From the perspective of international law

The violations documented in this report constitute serious breaches of peremptory norms of International Human Rights Law (IHRL) and International Humanitarian Law (IHL). In several instances, these acts may also amount to war crimes or crimes against humanity, given their systematic and widespread nature.

Article 17 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) states, “Everyone has the right to own property alone as well as in association with others. No one shall be arbitrarily deprived of his property.”[4] Article 11 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR) affirms the right of everyone to an adequate standard of living, including adequate food, clothing, and housing.[5] Article 17 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) prohibits arbitrary or unlawful interference with an individual’s privacy, home, or correspondence.[6] Together, these instruments establish the absolute protection of private property and the inviolability of the home, which cannot be lawfully violated outside established legal frameworks.

Furthermore, the large-scale destruction or seizure of property without justification based on military necessity, including the uprooting of hundreds of olive trees and the bulldozing of agricultural land, cannot be considered lawful under any legitimate exception. One farmer confirmed,

“Jaysh al-​Nukhba/Elite Army bulldozed the entire hill, including my orchard, and I estimate about 300 trees were destroyed.”

Such acts constitute serious breaches of the four Geneva Conventions of 1949,[7] and qualify as war crimes under Article 8 of the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court of 1998,[8] if committed systematically and on a widespread scale. These violations also violate Rule 50 of customary international humanitarian law (customary IHL), which binds all States, armed groups, and individuals in both international and non-international armed conflicts, affirming that “The destruction or seizure of the property of an adversary is prohibited, unless required by imperative military necessity.”[9]

The testimonies documented in this report show that owners were systematically stripped of their basic rights through the forced seizure of their property and the demanding of exorbitant payments for its return. One owner said,

“To this day, I have not returned to my home for fear of arrest. I also know they will demand large sums of money from me in exchange for the return of my property.”

Such acts of financial extortion under threat clearly violate international covenants and conventions that protect property and housing rights.

Furthermore, converting civilian property into military headquarters by armed groups is a blatant violation of the principle of distinction between civilian objects and military targets, as specified in Article 52 of Additional Protocol I to the Geneva Conventions. This practice not only allows for the unlawful seizure of civilian property but also directly endangers civilians by increasing the risk of attack, clearly breaching IHL.[10]

Arbitrary arrests of returnees seeking to reclaim property or to file complaints violate Article 9 of the ICCPR, which guarantees everyone the right to liberty and security and prohibits arbitrary detention. When such arrests happen during an armed conflict, they may also constitute war crimes under Article 8 of the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court. Victim testimonies show that arrest is often used as a tool of intimidation. In one case, a property owner was threatened with arrest by a faction after reporting the issue to authorities. In another instance, a person who approached the Grievance Redress Committees was threatened with murder and told, “If you do not want your children to be orphaned, drop your claim to your car and tractor. If you do claim them, we will kill you.”

The Guiding Principles on Internal Displacement (Principle 21) state that “property and possessions left behind by internally displaced persons should be protected against destruction and arbitrary or illegal appropriation, occupation, or use.” Authorities are also required to take all necessary steps to ensure that displaced persons can recover their property or receive fair compensation in line with these principles.[11] In Afrin, however, testimonies show that displaced individuals often have to pay or surrender their property to return, practices that directly contravene these standards. Additionally, protecting property rights for displaced persons is recognized as a norm of customary IHL as indicated in its Rules 132 and 133.

Documented testimonies in this report indicate that some property owners were subjected to torture and degrading treatment to force them to relinquish their property or abandon their claims. These acts constitute serious violations of international law, including Article 2 of the 1984 Convention against Torture (CAT), which imposes an absolute prohibition on torture under all circumstances, including states of emergency and armed conflict.[12] They also violate Article 7 of the ICCPR, which provides that: “No one shall be subjected to torture or to cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment.”

In the context of international criminal law, torture constitutes a crime against humanity if committed as part of a widespread or systematic attack directed against a civilian population, pursuant to Article 7(1)(f) of the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court. It also constitutes a war crime when committed against protected persons in a non-international armed conflict, as outlined in Article 8 of the same Statute.

The report indicates that the use of torture as a tool of extortion or financial coercion goes beyond an individual rights violation and qualifies as a serious international crime, requiring investigation, accountability, and reparation for victims, with measures to ensure that perpetrators do not evade punishment.

As emphasized in the Human Rights Committee’s General Comment No. 31 on Article 2 of the ICCPR,[13] States Parties are obligated to investigate and prosecute individuals accused of serious violations. However, victims’ testimonies indicate a lack of effective redress mechanisms, and that the Grievance Redress Committee and local authorities of the Transitional Government failed to provide protection or compensation. This absence of remedy perpetuates impunity, constituting a clear violation of the Syrian state’s obligations to ensure effective means of redress for any person whose rights or freedoms recognized in the Covenant have been violated, including violations committed by individuals acting in an official capacity.

2.3. Recommendations

Based on the findings of this report, which documents systematic patterns of HLP rights violations in the Afrin region since 2018, including forced property seizures, financial extortion, and identity-based discrimination, there is an urgent need for immediate and concrete measures to address these violations and prevent their recurrence. In line with the principles of IHRL and IHL, STJ submits the following recommendations to relevant local and international actors to safeguard the rights of victims, ensure accountability, and facilitate the safe and dignified return of displaced individuals to their properties.

2.3.1. To the Syrian Transitional Authorities:
  • Take immediate and urgent measures to evacuate all homes and properties seized in the Afrin region, without imposing any financial charges or illegal conditions on the owners, and ensure the full security of returnees during the process.
  • Stop all forced property seizures and ensure all responsible parties, including armed faction leaders and affiliated groups, are held accountable through transparent and impartial judicial procedures.
  • Empower the judiciary to handle property-related cases through independent civil courts, issuing binding eviction and compensation orders according to fair legal procedures, while safeguarding the right to litigation and appeal.
  • Expand the mandate of the National Commission for Transitional Justice to address violations committed by all parties since 2011, not just the former regime, and establish practical mechanisms to facilitate the return of displaced and forcibly evicted individuals to their homes and properties. This should create a safe and stable environment that ensures the sustainability of their return.
  • Activate mechanisms for financial and judicial accountability against individuals and entities involved in extortion networks, and review all property transactions carried out under duress or threats.
  • Develop a comprehensive compensation plan to address both material and moral damages caused by property seizure or destruction from 2011 onward, with a transparent process for identifying beneficiaries, scheduling payments, and implementing legal safeguards to prevent future occurrences.
2.3.2. To Civil Society and International Organizations:
  • Monitor and follow up on the situation of returnees in the Afrin region, document violations impartially and professionally, and produce thematic reports that highlight developments and emerging patterns of abuse.
  • Offer free legal aid to individuals affected, including drafting complaints for submission to local or international courts and providing specialized legal counsel.
  • Develop secure platforms for reporting and documentation, both digital and physical, to handle complaints and information about HLP violations. Ensure the safe preservation of evidence both inside and outside conflict zones.
  • Conduct community and rights-based awareness campaigns to inform residents about their housing and property rights, explain legal protection mechanisms, and outline ways to seek judicial remedies, using simplified informational materials in local languages.
2.3.3. To International Supporters:
  • Condition humanitarian and development aid on the adoption of a clear, publicly declared framework for protecting human rights, including property rights, adequate housing, and the restitution of property to rightful owners.
  • Ensure that transitional justice standards are integrated into reconstruction programs, including remedies for victims, accountability mechanisms, and sanctions against offenders.
  • Provide financial and technical support for accountability programs, witness protection initiatives, and efforts that contribute to property restitution or the provision of fair compensation, ensuring these efforts are sustainable and effective.
  • Advocate for the transitional government to allow the Independent International Commission of Inquiry on the Syrian Arab Republic (COI- Syria) access to the regions discussed in this report, as well as other areas affected by widespread violations, so they can investigate alleged abuses and submit detailed periodic reports.
  • Provide adequate support to human rights organizations that document violations and offer legal awareness to victims.

3. Methodology

For this report, STJ conducted extensive research from May 2024 to July 2025, including interviews with 39 individuals, 37 Kurds and two Arabs, all from the Afrin region. The research covered all seven districts of Afrin: Afrin Center/Navenda Efrîn, Shaykh al-Hadid/Şiyê, Rajo/Reco/Raju, Maabatli/Mabeta, Jindires/Cindirês, Sharran/Şera, and Bulbul/Blble.

These interviewees were either direct victims or relatives of victims of HLP rights violations carried out by various factions linked to the SNA. Many were forcibly displaced from the Afrin region, either during Türkiye’s Operation Olive Branch in 2018 or later, due to ongoing abuses. These violations included arbitrary arrests, torture, and other intimidation tactics, all committed by SNA factions after they took control of the region alongside the Turkish military.

Twelve of the interviewees had returned to Afrin, either temporarily or permanently, to reclaim their seized property. The remaining respondents were dispersed across various locations: two in Raqqa, two in Tall Rifat, eight in Qamishli/Qamishlo in al-Hasakah Governorate, eight in Aleppo, one in Iraqi Kurdistan, one in Sweden, and four in Germany.

The interviews were conducted in Arabic and Kurdish. Twenty-one were held online via secure applications, while the remaining 18 took place in person at locations considered safe and private by both the researchers and the witnesses. All interviewees provided informed consent after being told about the voluntary nature of their participation and the potential use of their information, including its publication in this report. Everyone chose to remain anonymous due to concerns about reprisals against themselves or their families by Turkish forces or allied factions. As a result, pseudonyms are used for all individuals whose testimonies are quoted in this report.

In addition to these interviews, STJ reviewed a wide range of open-source materials, including reports from UN bodies, human rights organizations, and local and international media outlets. The research also examined videos, photographs, social media posts, and documents shared by interviewees, including ownership records that some property owners preserved despite being forcibly displaced during the military operation.

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[1] For the full text of the 2025 Constitutional Declaration of the Syrian Arab Republic, see: https://constitutionnet.org/sites/default/files/2025-03/2025.03.13%20-%20Constitutional%20declaration%20%28English%29.pdf (last accessed: 10 September 2025)

[2] For the full text of the Syrian Civil Code [in Arabic], see: https://www.syrian-lawyer.club/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%82%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%88%D9%86-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%AF%D9%86%D9%8A-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%8A.pdf (last accessed: 10 September 2025)

[3] For the full text of the Syrian Penal Code [in Arabic], see: https://learningpartnership.org/sites/default/files/resources/pdfs/Syria-Penal-Cade-1949-Arabic.pdf (last accessed: 10 September 2025)

[4] For the full text of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, see: https://www.un.org/en/about-us/universal-declaration-of-human-rights (last accessed: 10 September 2025)

[5] For the full text of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, see: https://www.ohchr.org/en/instruments-mechanisms/instruments/international-covenant-economic-social-and-cultural-rights (last accessed: 10 September 2025)

[6] For the full text of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, see: https://www.ohchr.org/en/instruments-mechanisms/instruments/international-covenant-civil-and-political-rights (last accessed: 10 September 2025)

[7] “The Geneva Conventions and their Commentaries”, International Committee of the Red Cross, https://www.icrc.org/en/law-and-policy/geneva-conventions-and-their-commentaries (last accessed: 10 September 2025)

[8] For the full text of the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, see: https://www.ohchr.org/en/instruments-mechanisms/instruments/rome-statute-international-criminal-court (last accessed: 10 September 2025)

[9] For the full text of the Customary International Humanitarian Law, see: https://ihl-databases.icrc.org/en/customary-ihl/v1 (last accessed: 10 September 2025)

[10] For the full text of the Additional Protocol I to the Geneva Conventions, see: https://ihl-databases.icrc.org/en/ihl-treaties/api-1977 (last accessed: 10 September 2025)

[11] For the full text of the Guiding Principles on Internal Displacement, see: https://www.unhcr.org/media/guiding-principles-internal-displacement (last accessed: 10 September 2025)

[12] For the full text of the Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment, see: https://www.ohchr.org/en/instruments-mechanisms/instruments/convention-against-torture-and-other-cruel-inhuman-or-degrading (last accessed: 10 September 2025)

[13] “General comment no. 31 (80), The nature of the general legal obligation imposed on States Parties to the Covenant”, UN Digital Library, 29 March 2004, https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/533996?ln=en&v=pdf